Methods  of  Nature  Study 


A  Pamphlet  for  the  use  of 
Students  in  Methods  of  Nature 
Study  and  Elementary  Science 


By 

LAYTON  S.  HAWKINS 


State  Normal  School 


CORTLAND,  N.  Y. 


Copyrighted,  1 909,  by  Layton  S.  Hawkins 


Va  3  \ 


W^Arrv 


INTRODUCTION 


The  practical  problem,  which  now  confronts  the  advocates 
of  nature-study,  is  to  formulate  some  general  principles  which 
may  guide  teachers  in  organizing  nature-study  work.  The 
formation  of  the  American  Nature-Study  Society  is  a  step  in 
the  right  direction.  Professor  Bailey,  its  president,  advocates 
that  the  society,  or  a  committee  from  the  society,  put  in  con¬ 
crete  form  results  of  the  ideas  that  have  been  repeatedly  ex¬ 
pressed.  This  would  at  least  afford  a  central  point  for  dis¬ 
cussion  from  which  might  eventually  come  a  generally  accept¬ 
ed  basis  for  a  course  of  study. 

Gradually  the  difficulties  which  have  stood  in  the  way  of  a 
general  introduction  of  nature-study  into  the  schools  are  be¬ 
ing  removed.  The  teachers  are  getting  in  sympathy  with  the 
"^observational  methods  and  are  recognizing  the  general  aims 
of  nature-study.  Superintendents  and  principals  are  becom- 
_^ing  convinced  of  the  educational  and  ethical  value  of  nature- 
study.  Parents  are  finally  losing  the  idea  that  nature-study 

_ .is  a  fad.  In  order  that  there  may  not  be  reaction  it 'is  quite 

necessary  that  our  work  be  organized.  The  lines  of  organiza¬ 
tion  may  be  broad,  it  seems  that  they  should  be  broad,  but 
they  must  be  definite  if  nature-study  is  to  have  a  permanent 
place  in  our  school  curriculum. 

Biologists  have  been  most  active  in  establishing  nature- 
study  in  the  schools  and  in  working  out  courses,  lessons,  and 
suggestions.  Biological  facts  are  the  basis  of  most  of  the  text¬ 
books  of  nature-study.  As  a  consequence,  in  the  average 
teacher’s  mind,  nature-study  material  means  plants  and  ani¬ 
mals.  We  are  all  agreed  that  material  for  nature-study  comes 

3 


J 

o 


from  the  fields  of  meteorology,  geology,  mineralogy,  physical 
geography,  physics  and  chemistry,  as  well  as  from  the  field 
of  biology.  Why,  then,  in  our  courses,  lessons,  plans,  and  sug¬ 
gestions  permit  the  biological  to  dominate?  We  say  that 
nature-study  is  an  attitude  of  mind.  Why  not  get  into  this 
attitude  and  incorporate  in  our  writings  all  kinds  of  nature- 
study  facts  rather  than  biological  facts  only?  If  teachers 
in  the  public  schools  are  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the  move¬ 
ment,  the  leaders  must  be  natural  scientists  instead  of  biol¬ 
ogists,  physicists,  chemists,  or  geologists.  The  writer  wishes 
to  state  here  that  he  has  been  trained  along  the  lines  of  bio¬ 
logical  rather  than  other  science. 

In  the  discussion  of  aims,  methods,  and  materials  there 
has  been  expressed  great  difference  of  opinion.  Note  for 
instance  the  points  made  in  the  discussions  of  Dr.  Horna- 
day ’s  article  on  the  weakness  of  nature-study.  (Nature  Study 
Review,  Jan.  1907).  Some  of  the  writers  had  in  mind,  as 
did  Dr.  Hornaday,  only  the  upper  grades,  while  others  were 
evidently  thinking  of  the  lower  grades.  Very  little  emphasis 
has  been  placed  upon  the  distinctions  that  should  be  made 
between  the  first  and  last  years  of  the  work  in  the  elementary 
school.  Almost  without  exception  writers  apply  to  the  grades 
as  a  whole,  ideas  which  relate  to  a  limited  portion  only.  A 
separation  of  the  discussion  might  harmonize  some  apparent¬ 
ly  diverse  views.  The  fifth  or  sixth  year  seems  to  mark  some 
break  in  school  work.  Primary  (1-5)  grades  are  on  a  different 
basis  than  the  grammar  (6-8)  grades.  This  division  of  the 
elementary  school,  primary,  grades  1-5,  grammar,  grades  6-8, 
appears  to  be  a  logical  educational  distinction  and  applies 
not  only  to  subject-matter  but  also  to  presentation. 

The  chief  aim  in  the  primary  grades  should  be  to  acquaint 
the  child  with  many  of  the  forms  of  nature.  The  work  is 
essentially  perceptive,  perception  of  things  and  the  visible  re¬ 
lationships  of  things.  The  material  is  therefore  mainly  miner¬ 
als,  plants,  and  animals.  The  actual  presence  of  the  objects  in 
the  hands  of  a  common-sense  teacher  is  the  main  factor  for 
success.  The  aquarium,  the  vivarium,  potted  plants,  the 
school  garden,  and  the  daily  phenomena  of  meterology,  sup- 

4 


plement  excursions  which  should  of  course,  always  have  first 
consideration.  Expression  should  be  for  the  most  part  oral 
and  as  informal  and  conversational  as  possible.  Vividness  of 
presentation  should  be  the  means  of  fixing  the  knowledge. 
This  part  of  the  work  has  been  well  thought  out  and  nature- 
study  in  its  present  form  and  significance  is  well  suited  to  the 
primary  grades. 

The  work  of  the  grammar  grades  ought  to  be  along  two  sep¬ 
arate  lines— one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls — -but  as  this  is  not 
practicable  and  there  seems  to  be  little  tendency  toward  a  con¬ 
dition  which  will  make  it  practicable,  I  am  inclined  to  favor  the 
boys.  The  work  should  be  presented  in  the  problem  form. 
The  students  should  be  encouraged  to  suggest  as  many  of  the 
problems  as  possible  and  then  be  allowed  to  determine  the 
means  of  working  them  out.  The  student  should  be  led  to 
explain  for  himself  certain  phenomena,  with  which  he  comes 
in  daily  contact,  in  order  that  he  may  come  into  an  under¬ 
standing  relationship  with  his  environment  and  at  the  same 
time  increase  his  ability  to  solve  for  himself  practical  problems 
(not  mathematical).  With  this  end  in  view,  the  following 
points  should  be  made  important: 

(1)  The  pupil  and  not  the  subject-matter  is  the  first 
consideration. 

(2)  The  subject-matter  is  to  be  a  means  and  not  an  end. 

(3)  The  problems  are  to  be  solved  in  the  light  of  the  hor¬ 
izon  of  the  pupil  and  not  that  of  the  research  student. 

Physical  and  chemical  phenomena  seem  to  be  the  best  mate¬ 
rial  for  this  work.  The  experiments  run  through  a  short  period 
of  time  and  the  conditions  are  easily  controlled.  Results  are 
definite  and  many  secondary  problems  suggest  themselves. 
In  none  of  the  work  should  there  be  any  attempt  to  develop 
mathematical  formulae  or  formal  definitions.  In  considering 
the  pendulum,  my  students  of  the  seventh  year  worked  out 
the  following  laws: 

(1)  The  weight  of  the  pendulum  bob  makes  no  difference 
in  the  number  of  swings  of  the  pendulum  in  a  given  time. 

(2)  The  length  of  the  swing  of  the  pendulum  bob  makes  no 

5 


difference  in  the  number  of  swings  of  the  pendulum  in  a  given 
time. 

(3)  The  shorter  the  pendulum  rod,  the  greater  the  number 
of  swings  of  the  pendulum  in  a  given  time. 

At  the  request  of  the  teacher,  the  students  themselves  de¬ 
cided  what  might  affect  the  number  of  swings,  devised  the 
experiments,  and  finally  agreed  upon  the  above  as  the  laws 
which  govern  the  swinging  of  the  pendulum. 

In  the  eighth  year  the  present  elementary  biology  planned 
for  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  with  some  expansion  of  the 
introductory  experiments  in  chemistry  and  an  elimination 
of  some  of  the  structural  work,  makes  an  excellent  course. 

Summary 

1.  Times  are  propitious  for  a  general  introduction  of  science 
study  in  the  schools. 

2.  Biological  material  should  not  be  dominant. 

3.  Nature-study  in  the  primary  grades. 

4.  Elementary  science  in  the  grammar  grades. 

The  above  is  an  extract  from  a  paper  read  at  a  joint  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Nature-Study  Section  of  the  New  York  State  Teach¬ 
ers’  Association  and  the  State  Science  Teachers’  Association 
held  at  Syracuse  December,  1908. 


6 


The  Note  Book 

The  note  book  should  contain  a  record  of  the  important 
facts  obtained  by  consulting  authorities,  performing  experi¬ 
ments,  and  making  observations. 

Clearness  and  permanence  of  mental  impressions  depend  up¬ 
on  the  vividness,  exactness,  and  thoroughness  of  expe¬ 
rience  with  the  object  or  idea  and  upon  relationship  established 
with  mental  impressions  already  familiar.  To  this  end  the 
hints  concerning  the  making  of  a  note  book  are  directed. 

A  good  note  book  should  be  neat,  exact  and  concise.  In 
making  the  book  concise,  however,  no  important  fadts  should 
be  omitted. 

The  drawings  are  to  be  suggestive.  A  mere  outline  is 
sufficient,  but  this  should  be  definite.  The  drawing  is  not  an 
end  but  a  means.  It  expresses  what  could  only  with  difficulty 
be  expressed  in  words. 

The  note  book  as  a  mere  compendium  of  second-hand  facts 
means  little  and  as  such  is  not  worth  the  time  of  making. 
Be  as  original  and  independent  in  your  work  as  possible. 
One  student’s  note  book  should  be  as  different  from  his 
neighbor’s  as  he  is  different  from  his  neighbor. 

The  student’s  attitude  toward  the  subject  should  be  that  of 
the  original  discoverer.  The  work  is  not  assigned  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  putting  the  facts  in  his  possession.  He  is  expected 
to  grow  in  the  work  and  become  a  reliable,  progressive  in¬ 
vestigator.  Mere  acquisition  or  corroboration  of  facts  is 
time  wasted  unless  he  is  finding  out  things  for  himself. 
He  is  to  become  proficient  in  problem  solving.  To  do  this 
he  must  solve  problems. 

Aim  at  unity  of  ideas  in  written  work.  All  writing 
should  be  in  ink.  It  should  be  of  good  composition,  carefully 
paragraphed  and  plainly  written.  Spell  correctly. 

Ask  questions  freely.  A  good  question  from  a  student  is 
ofttimes  better  evidence  of  the  progress  of  that  student  than 
a  good  answer  to  a  good  question  from  the  teacher. 

7 


Aims  of  Nature-Study 

The  history  of  science  teaching  shows  us  that  there  have 
been  several  marked  stages  in  its  evolution  to  the  present 
form.  The  development  of  nature-study  has  been  along  simi¬ 
lar  lines. 

Old  natural  histories  were  mainly  devoted  to  illustrations 
and  descriptions  of  monsters  and  monstrosities  of  foreign  coun¬ 
tries.  The  unusual  and  startling  features  of  nature  were  the 
basis  of  study. 

Discuss  this  idea  of  nature-study  in  the  light  of  present 
theory : 

1.  The  means  of  study  necessitated. 

2.  The  effect  of  such  an  aim  on  the  child. 

Early  in  the  history  of  science  teaching,  and  especially  so  in 
the  teaching  of  nature  study,  the  aim  of*  utility  was  intro¬ 
duced, — a  practical  doctrine  measured  in  dollars  and  cents 
and  that  to  the  exclusion  of  other  important  considerations. 

Discuss  this  aim  of  nature-study: 

1.  Its  advantages  in  contribution. 

2.  Its  disadvantages  in  limitation. 

3.  Its  present  meaning. 

The  next  dominant  aim  in  nature  study  was  training  in 
mental  discipline.  This  in  a  broad  sense  was  an  excellent 
aim,  but  reduced  to  school  room  practice  became  lifeless.  The 
test  of  efficiency  became  the  power  to  describe. 

Discuss  the  dicipline  aim  of  nature  study. 

1 .  What  is  the  chief  tendency  of  a  disciplinary  aim? 

2.  Is  this  a  live  aim? 

3.  How  avoid  the  dangers  of  such  an  aim? 

4.  How  is  such  an  aim  related  to  language  training? 

As  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  elementary  education 
in  recent  years,  the  development  of  that  stage  of  education 
has  become  more  marked.  Nothing  could  be  more  natural, 
however,  than  that  these  schools  should  be  formulated  on  the 
lines  of  those  already  established,  i.  e.,  colleges  and  universi¬ 
ties.  So  with  the  recent  development  of  nature-study  in 
the  elementary  school,  it  has  taken  its  form  from  the  higher 

8 


schools.  As  a  result,  the  aim  of  nature-study  up  to  the  last 
few  years  inclined  to  scientific  classification.  In  fact  the  first 
general  introduction  of  nature-study  into  our  public  schools 
was  along  these  lines.  Even  to-day  there  are  many,  if  not 
a  majority,  of  scientists  and  science  teachers  who  maintain 
that  the  aim  of  nature-study  should  be  scientific. 

Discussion: 

1.  Formulate  an  argument  in  favor  of  the  above  aim. 

2.  Formulate  an  argument  against  the  above  aim. 

The  present  conception  of  nature-study  has  as  its  pedagog¬ 
ical  foundations  a  double  aim.  (1)  To  foster  and  cultivate 
the  inborn  interest  which  every  child  has  in  nature.  (2)  To 
develop  in  a  normal  and  natural  way  the  powers  of  observa¬ 
tion,  memory,  and  reason. 

Discussion  formulated  on  the  following  statements: 

1.  Interest  is  intensified  by  knowledge. 

2.  Interest  is  extended  by  knowledge. 

3.  Memory  is,  to  some  extent  at  least,  dependent  upon 
interest  and  extent  of  knowledge. 

4.  The  formulation  of  correct  premises  in  reasoning  is 
dependent  upon  the  extent,  accuracy,  and  range  of  knowledge 
and  observation. 

References 

Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science — Charles  A.  McMurry* 
Nature  Study  Review,  Vol.  3,  No.  1,  p.  1. — Maurice  A. 
Bigelow. 

Nature  Study  Review,  Vol.  3,  No.  4,  p.  102 — Mary  P.  Ander¬ 
son. 

Nature  Study  Review,  Vol.  3,  No.  6,  p.  162 — Elliot  R.  Down¬ 
ing. 

Nature  Study — Frederick  L.  Holtz. 

The  Study  of  Nature — Samuel  C.  Schmucker. 

Nature  Study  and  Life — Clifton  F.  Hodge. 


9 


V 


Nature-Study  and  Science 

Assuming  that  by  consensus  of  opinion  the  following  are  the 
characteristics  of  nature  study:  (1)  observation,  the  fun¬ 
damental  method;  (2)  common  things  in  nature,  the  im¬ 
portant  materials;  (3)  human  interests  in  every  day  life, 
the  point  of  view,  contrast  nature -study  and  science,  (1)  as  to 
materials  for  study,  (2)  as  to  method  of  study,  (3)  as  to  the 
point  of  view. 

Every  child  learns  to  read.  Is  the  ability  to  read  in  itself 
the  aim  of  reading  teaching?  Is  it  desirable  that  the  child 
should  be  interested  in  reading  for  its  own  sake  or  only  from 
the  utility  stand-point?  Would  the  child  have  much  in¬ 
terest  in  the  ultimate  aim  of  reading  teaching?  Does  the 
teacher  have  in  mind  the  idea  that  reading  or  the  ability  to 
read  is  a  means,  not  an  end?  Apply  these  questions  to  the 
discussion  in  hand  concerning  nature-study  and  science. 

All  mathematics  is  based  upon  a  few  fundamental  opera¬ 
tions.  Is  there  any  mention  made  of  the  later  functions  of 
these  operations  when  they  are  presented  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  the  education  of  the  child?  Does  the  teacher  know 
of  the  importances  of  these  operations?  Ought  there  to  be 
any  evidence  of  such  knowledge  in  the  teaching  of  arith¬ 
metic?  Apply  the  above  questions  tojthe  problem  in  hand. 

References 

Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  Vol.  2,  p.  131 — De 
Garmo. 

Nature-Study  Review,  Vol.  4,  No.  2,  p.  33 — Maurice  A. 
Bigelow. 

Nature-Study  Review,  Vol.  4,  No.  2,  pp.  41-51 — Various 
Authors. 

Nature-Study  Review, Vol.  4,  No.  1,  p.p10 — Stanley  Coulter. 

Nature-Study  Review,  Vol.  4,  No.  1,  p.  16 — Clifton  R. 
Hodge. 

Nature-Study  Review,  Vol.  4,  No.  1,  p.20 — C.jR.  Mann. 

14 


Call  number 


I 


TITLE 


Reserved  books  are  to  be  consulted  in  the  Reading  rooms  only. 
The  signer  of  the  call  slip  must  return  the  book  to  the  Loan  desk  before 
leaving  the  room. 

Reserved  books  may  not  be  loaned  from  the  library  except  when 
the  Reading  rooms  are  closed;  and  when  so  loaned  they  must  be  re¬ 
turned  by  the  time  the  library  next  opens;  failure  to  do  so  subjects  the 
borrower  to  a  fine  of  twenty-five  cents  for  the  first  hour  and  five  cents 
for  every  hour  after  that  until  the  book  is  returned. 


UNIVERSITY  qp  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY 


Signature  of  borrower 


4 


i 


Media  of  Instruction  (General) 


I.  Intellectual  transmission. 

A.  Language. 

(1)  Oral  discourse. 

(a)  Lectures. 

(b)  Questions  and  answers. 

(2)  Books. 

(a)  Text-book. 

(b)  Reference  books. 

(c)  Source  books. 

B.  Visual  impression. 

(1)  Observation. 

(a)  Direct. 

(b)  Experimental. 

(2)  Graphic  representation. 

(a)  Models. 

(b)  Pictures. 

(c)  Maps. 

(d)  Diagrams. 

II.  Emotional  transmission. 

(a)  Literature. 

(b)  Pictorial  art. 

(c)  Plastic  art. 

(d)  Music. 

(e)  Oratory. 

Discuss  the  place  of  nature-study  in  this  scheme. 


17 


Materials 


What  particular  materials  to  use  in  nature-study  will  al¬ 
ways  be  an  open  question.  The  great  diversity  in  conditions 
makes  the  problem  a  different  one  for  each  teacher.  Equip¬ 
ment,  time,  weather,  class  of  children,  and  locality,  all  varia¬ 
bles,  enter  into  its  solution.  Concerning  the  general  character 
of  the  material  there  is  an  almost  unanimous  opinion.  Near¬ 
ly  all  agree  that  animals,  plants,  or  rocks  serve  equally  well  for 
material,  the  one  determining  factor  being  their  accessibility. 
Study  those  things  which  are  near  at  hand  and  are  closely 
related  to  the  lives  of  the  children. 

Discuss  the  last  statement: 

1.  From  the  standpoint  of  Psychology. 

2.  From  the  standpoint  of  Science. 

3.  From  the  standpoint  of  Economy. 

In  general,  it  is  best  to  separate  the  topics  treated  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  capacity  of  the  child,  even  though  the  same  topic 
recur  in  several  grades.  The  lower  primary  grades  (1st  and 
2d)  deal  with  concrete  types  with  special  emphasis  on  appear¬ 
ance  and  most  noticeable  activities.  The  aim  is  to  acquaint 
the  child  with  as  many  as  possible  of  the  objects  of  nature  in 
his  immediate  surroundings.  Perception  is  the  chief  mental  ac¬ 
tivity  to  be  cultivated.  The  range  is  broad  and  the  work  ex¬ 
tensive  rather  than  intensive.  In  the  upper  primary  grades 
(4th  and  5th)  comparison  and  relationships  are  emphasized. 
The  aim  is  to  establish  in  the  child’s  mind  the  associations 
and  interdependence  of  the  objects  of  nature.  Attention  is 
also  paid  to  the  economic  importance  of  the  objects.  The 
familiar  objects  taught  in  the  lower  grades  furnish  many  of  the 
concepts  for  this  work.  Judgment  is  the  mental  activity  to 
be  mainly  considered.  The  work  of  the  third  grade  combines 
the  two  aims  mentioned  above  and  is  the  transition  stage. 
The  material  in  these  primary  grades  is  mainly  biological, 
geological,  and  meteorological.  ,  In  the  grammar  grades  the 
material  is  mainly  physical  and  chemical.  In  these  upper 
grades  the  aim  is  to  acquaint  the  child  with  the  common  physi¬ 
cal  and  chemical  phenomena  of  nature.  Reason  is  the 

18 


chief  mental  activity  to  be  cultivated.  Demonstration  is  the 
means  of  furnishing  the  observational  matter  and  the  men¬ 
tal  construction  is  carried  on  by  careful  questioning.  The  work 
is  thrown  into  problem  form  and  the  problem  stated  in  the 
form  of  a  question. 

Discuss  this  arrangement  of  material: 

1.  Regarding  the  development  of  the  individual. 

2.  In  respect  to  the  natural  interests  of  the  child. 

3.  As  fitted  to  the  methods  of  study  advocated. 

There  are,  in  general,  two  ways  of  bringing  facts  to  the  at¬ 
tention  of  pupils.  The  teacher  may  narrate  and  describe 
or  he  may  set  a  problem  which  is  to  be  solved  by  the  pupils. 
The  latter  method  is  well  illustrated  in  a  question  asked  by  the 
teacher  and  answered  by  the  pupil.  The  question  is  the  prob¬ 
lem  and  the  answer  is  the  result  of  work  on  the  part  of  the 
child.  Thus  we  see  that  a  series  of  questions  is  really  a  set 
of  problems  and  as  such  afford  an  opportunity  for  thought  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  question  then  resolves  itself 
into  a  problem. 

Since  the  child  is  not,  in  the  beginning,  apt  at  solving 
problems,  they  should  be  simple.  As  mental  power 
grows,  the  problems  should  increase  in  complexity. 
To  solve  a  complex  problem  one  must  resolve  it  into  its  sim¬ 
pler  forms.  These  secondary  problems  must  then  be  solved, 
after  which  the  original  problem  will  come  up  for  considera¬ 
tion.  This  is  the  process  gone  through  by  anyone  in  the 
solution  of  a  complex  problem  even  though  he  is  not  conscious 
of  the  stages.  Thus  it  seems  best  at  first  for  the  teacher  to 
state  the  complex  problem,  and  then  resolve  it  into  its  simple 
secondary  problems  for  the  children  in  order  to  inculcate  the 
habit  of  analyzing  a  problem  into  its  simple  forms.  This 
explains  why  the  good  teacher  has  his  questions  cumulative, 
both  for  the  day’s  lesson  and  for  the  whole  time  of  instruc¬ 
tion.  This  arrangement  follows  the  natural  thought  proc¬ 
esses  and  the  natural  development  of  the  mental  powers. 

The  choice  of  problems  shows  the  degree  to  which  the  teach¬ 
er  has  determined  the  capacity  of  his  pupils.  Here  the 
teacher  has  an  opportunity  to  develop  the  individual.  The 

19 


slower  and  less  efficient  child  should  be  given  many 
simple  problems  and  thus  afforded  an  opportunity  to  develop 
his  power  of  reasoning.  The  quick  and  apt  pupil  should  be 
given  more  intricate  problems.  Every  time  the  pupil  an¬ 
swers  a  good  question,  no  matter  how  simple  or  conrcete,  he 
performs  a  genuine  exercise  in  thinking.  An  answer  which  has 
been  memorized  tends  to  prevent  thinking,  e.  g.,  the  pupils  get 
into  the  habit  of  learning  a  term  and  applying  it  as  an  answer 
to  a  certain  question  much  as  a  reflex  action.  This  is  why  we 
say  that  the  same  question  when  asked  several  times  should 
be  worded  differently  each  time.  The  “yes”  and  “no”  ques¬ 
tions  frequently  fail  to  arouse  thought.  The  problem 
should  be  stated  to  the  whole  class  and  then  some  one 
chosen  to  give  the  results.  A  complex  problem  may 
be  very  complex  to  some  and  comparatively  simple  to 
others.  Questions  for  1st  and  2d  grades  are  mainly  to  direct 
observation.  The  answers  are  the  result  of  sense  perception. 

Questions  for  the  4th  and  5th  grades  are  mainly  to  develop 
relationship,  function,  cause  and  effect. 

Questions  of  the  upper  grades  run  to  complex  form  and  aim 
to  develop  reasoning  in  its  more  complex  forms. 

Discuss  the  following  points  in  relation  to  questioning: 

1.  Purposes  of  questioning. 

2.  Conditions  essential  for  efficient  questioning. 

3.  Essentials  of  a  good  question. 

4.  The  results  of  successful  questioning. 


20 


Special  Topics 

The  following  list  of  topics  appears  on  the  progress  charts 
of  the  primary  department.  A  lesson  or  series  of  lessons  has 
been  given  on  each  of  them  during  the  past  two  years: 


Air 

Cocoons 

Goose 

N  ests 

Anemone 

Coffee 

Grape 

Nuts 

Ant 

Coral 

Grasshopper 

Oak  apples 

Apple 

Corn 

Grasses 

Oak  Tree 

Aquarium 

Cotton 

Greyhound 

Onion 

Aster 

Cow 

Hairworm 

Orange 

Bat 

Coyote 

Hare 

Oriole 

Bean 

Crab 

Hedgehog 

Ostrich 

Bee 

Cranberry 

Hen 

Owl 

Beet 

Crayfish 

Hepatica 

Oyster 

Beetle 

Cricket 

Holly 

Paper 

Blackberry 

Crow 

Horse 

Parrot 

Black  bird 

Daisy 

Horsechestnut 

Pea 

Blood  root 

Dandelion 

Humming  Bird 

Peanut 

Bluebird 

Dew 

Ice 

Pear 

Bobolink 

Dog 

Insects,  beneficial 

Peat 

Buckwheat 

Donkey 

Insects,  harmful 

Phoebe  Bird 

Buds 

Dragon  fly 

Iris 

Pig 

Bulbs 

Duck 

Iron 

Pigeons 

Burdock 

Eagle 

Jack-in-Pulpit 

Pines 

Buttercup 

Egg 

Leaves 

Plants 

Butterfly 

Elephant 

Lemon 

Plum 

Camel 

Elm 

Lilac 

Poisonous  plants 

Canary 

Evergreen 

Lily 

Porcupine 

Carrot 

Feathers 

Linen 

Potato 

Cat 

Fern 

Lobster 

Propagat’n, plant 

Caterpillar 

Fish 

Lumber 

Pumpkin 

Cedar  Bird 

Flowers 

Maple 

Pussy  Willow 

Chalk 

Fly 

Maple  Sugar 

Rabbit 

Cherry 

Forestry 

Milkweed 

Radish 

Chestnut 

Fox 

Mole 

Rainbow 

Chickadee 

Frost 

Moon 

Raspberry 

Chipmunk 

Fruit 

Mosquito 

Rat 

Clam 

Galls 

Moss 

Reindeer 

Clay 

Gardens 

Moth 

Robin 

Clouds 

Germination 

Mould 

Roots 

*  Calendar 

Glass 

Mouse 

Rose 

Clover 

Gold 

Muskrat 

Rubber 

Coal 

Goldenrod 

Mushrooms 

Salt 

Cocoanut 

Goldfinch 

Nasturtium 

Seal 

25 


Seeds 

Spring  beauty 

Tea 

Wasp 

Seed  dispersal 

Squash 

Thistle 

Water 

Sheep 

Squirrels 

Toad 

Weasel 

Silk  worm 

Starch 

Tomato 

Weather 

Silk 

Stars 

Trees 

Weeds 

Slate 

Stems 

Trillium 

Wheat 

Snail 

Stones 

Tulip 

Willow 

Snake 

Strawberry 

Turkey 

Wind 

Snow 

Sugar 

Turnip 

Wood 

Snow-bird 

Sun 

Turtle 

Woodpeckers 

Snow-drop 

Sunflower 

Violet 

Wool 

Soil 

Swallow 

Walking  Stick 

Worm 

Spider 

Sweet  Pea 

The  list  of  books  which  have  been  helpful  to  teachers  in 
collecting  and  arranging  the  material  for  tha  bove  lessons  is 
given  here  as  a  hint  to  the  possibilities  and  is  not  in  any  sense 
a  complete  catalog. 

N  ature-Study — Holtz. 

Nature-Study  and  Life — Hodge. 

Short  Stories  of  Our  Shy  Neighbors — Kelly. 

Study  of  Nature — Schmucker. 

First  Studies  of  Plant  Life — Atkinson. 

Nature  Study  with  Common  Things — Carter. 

Chatty  Readings  in  Elementary  Science. 

In  the  Child’s  World — Poulsson. 

Nature  Study  and  the  Child — Scott. 

Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools — Wilson. 

1st,  2d,  3d,  and  4th  school  Year — California  Normal  School. 
Our  Native  Trees — Keeler. 

Plants  and  Their  Children — Dana. 

Nature  Study — Overton  and  Hill. 

Friends  in  Feather  and  Fur — Johonnot. 

Nature  Myths — Cooke. 

Bird  Neighbors — Engell. 

Intermediate  Plan  Book. — George. 

Manual  of  Insects — Comstock. 

School  Work  (Bound  Volumes  of  Magazine). 

Lives  of  the  Hunted — Thompson. 

Stories  of  Animal  Life — Holder. 

26 


Birds  and  Nature,  Vol.  14. 

Ways  of  the  Six-footed — Comstock. 

Round  the  Year — Miall. 

Squirrels  and  Other  Fur-bearers. 

Outdoor  Studies — Needham. 

Cornell  Leaflets. 

Natural  History  Object  Lessons — Ricks. 

The  Bird’s  Calendar — Parkhurst. 

Animal  Memoirs — Lockwood. 

Insect  Folk — Morley. 

Nature  Study  Review  (Bound  Volumes  of  Magazine.) 

Domesticated  Animals — Shaler. 

Little  Flower  Folks — Pratt. 

Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins — Johonnot. 

Our  Common  Birds — Grant. 

Elements  of  Agriculture — Sever. 

Nature  Biographies — Weed. 

The  Soil — King. 

First  Principles  of  Agriculture — Goff  and  Mayne. 

Star  Land — Ball 

Giant  Sun  and  His  Family — Proctor. 

Stories  of  Rocks  and  Minerals — Fairbanks. 

General  Lesson  Plan 

In  the  consideration  of  a  lesson  or  a  series  of  lessons,  there 
must  be  a  general  aim  which  will  set  forth  the  object  of  that 
group  of  lessons.  Each  individual  lesson,  then,  must  have  a 
special  aim  which  indicates  the  object  of  that  day’s  work. 
In  getting  up  a  lesson,  the  first  thing,  of  course,  after  the 
general  aim  is  settled,  is  to  arrange  a  series  of  lessons  which  will 
reach  the  end  in  view.  Now  comes  the  particular  lesson. 

In  the  first  place  we  must  make  use  of  the  more  recent  ac¬ 
quirements  of  the  pupil  and  to  do  this,  we  recall  the  points 
which  will  be  useful  in  preparing  for  the  lesson  of  the  day. 
In  this  we  see  that  the  new  lesson  must  first  be  determined 
upon  in  order  that  we  may  know  what  to  prepare  for.  Then 
we  must  present  the  new  subject  and  relate  it  to  the  experience 
of  the  child  and  lead  him  to  draw  the  conclusions.  In  order 

27 


that  the  work  may  be  useful  and  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  pu¬ 
pils  and  in  order  that  we  may  be  sure  that  he  has  real¬ 
ly  acquired  experience,  we  apply  this  new  knowledge. 

We  find  then  that  every  lesson  to  be  educational,  must  have 
the  three  essentials  of  getting  ready  for  the  lesson,  teaching 
the  lesson,  and  by  some  means  (preferably  by  application) 
fixing  the  knowledge. 

Special  Lesson  Plan 

Aim-A.  General — Usually  the  aim  of  a  series  of  lessons 
B.  Specific — The  object  of  the  individual  lesson. 

I.  Preparation 

Matter  Method 

Review  of  material  taught  which  Manner  of  review  by  question 
will  be  useful  in  the  day’s  lesson.  and  answer,  experiment,  story, 

showing  material,  etc. 

II.  Presentation 

Material  for  the  day’s  lesson.  Manner  of  presenting  the  new  ma- 
Pictures,  story,  apparatus,  material,  terial,  explanations,  question,  dem- 
etc.— reading.  onstrations,  etc. 

III.  Association  and  Comparison 

Correlation — subjects  and  facts  Manner  of  correlation,  usually 
related  with  each  other  and  with  by  question, 
known,  ones. 


IV.  Generalization 

Definition.  Question  used  to  bring  out  defini¬ 

tion. 

V.  Application 

Work  to  fix  the  knowledge  of  The  manner  of  treating  the  ex¬ 
lesson  taught  and  show  the  use  of  amples  or  method  of  drill, 
lesson. 

In  the  primary  grades  the  work  is  usually  of  such  a  nature 
that  step  IV  is  omitted.  Step  III  is  then  combined  with  II. 
In  many  of  the  lessons  the  application  is  better  named  sum¬ 
mary  as  it  is  really  a  summary  of  the  points  observed. 

28 


Development  of  Lessons  (for  Primary  Work) 

The  first  consideration  in  teaching  is  a  thorough  prepara¬ 
tion  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  That  preparation  in  nature- 
study  means,  first,  a  familiarizing  of  the  teacher  with  the  topic 
or  topics  to  be  considered  to  the  extent  of  becoming  conver¬ 
sant  with  all  available  knowledge  on  the  topic  from  the  fol¬ 
lowing  sources: 

1.  Actual  observation  and  experiment. 

2.  Consultation  with  the  instructor. 

3.  Books  (see  card  index  in  the  general  library). 

4.  Bound  magazines  (see  Poole’s  index  and  Reader’s  guide) . 

5.  Pamphlets  in  the  science  library  (see  card  catalog  in 
science  library). 

6.  Current  magazines  and  periodicals. 

Both  for  the  use  of  observation  in  preparing  the  lessons  and 
for  clearness  and  force  in  presenting  them,  materials  should  be 
collected  and  preserved.  These  materials  will  be  used  in  pre¬ 
senting  the  lesson  or  lessons. 

The  second  step  is  the  organization,  in  an  essay,  of  the  facts 
acquired,  especial  attention  being  paid  to  logical  arrangement. 
Appended  to  this  essay  will  be  a  list  of  the  books,  periodicals, 
pamphlets,  etc.,  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the  article. 

The  third  step  is  to  outline  three  lessons  or  series  of  lessons 
on  this  topic  suitable  for  the  1st  or  2d,  3d  and  4th  or  5th  grades 
respectively. 

The  fourth  step  is  to  write  out  a  single  lesson  (designating 
the  grade  for  which  it  is  intended)  in  detail.  State  explicitly 
the  materials  to  be  used  and  the  use  to  be  made  of  them. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  essay  and  the  lessons  pre¬ 
pared  by  Miss  Helen  J.  Bowker  of  the  class  of  1909.  Owing 
to  lack  of  space,  the  essay  itself  is  omitted.  The  figures  in 
(  )  refer  to  the  numbers  in  the  bibliography.  The  collection 
of  materials  made  by  Miss  Bowker  is  now  in  the  Nature- 
Study  Museum. 


/ 


29 


Wool 


A.  Introduction. 

1.  History  (1) 

(a)  Prehistoric  (2) 

(b)  Egypt,  Rome,  Spain  (2) 

(c)  United  States  (2)  (7) 

2.  Commercial  importance. 

(a)  Sheep  raising  in  foreign  countries  (2)  (5) 

(b)  Sheep  raising  in  United  States  (2) 

(c)  Development  of  wool  manufacture. 

B.  Nature  of  wool  (1)  (2) 

1.  Derivation  of  word. 

2.  Like  and  unlike  hair. 

3.  Characteristics. 

C.  Grades  of  wool. 

1.  Different  breeds  of  sheep  (1) 

2.  Care  of  sheep  (2) 

3.  Body  region  (2) 

4.  Defects. 

D.  Washing  of  sheep  (1) 

E.  Shearing  of  sheep  (1) 

1.  By  hand. 

2.  By  machine. 

F.  Bales. 

G.  Woolen  products. 

1.  Woolens  (1) 

2.  Worsteds  (1)  (2) 

3.  Carpets. 

4.  Felts. 

H.  Woolen  manufacture. 

1.  Sorting  and  grading  (2) 

(a)  Necessity. 

(b)  Classification. 

(c)  Names  used. 

2.  Scouring  (1)  (2) 

(a)  Why  necessary. 

(b)  Materials  used. 

(c)  Decrease  in  weight. 


30 


3.  Oiling  (2) 

(a)  Necessity. 

(b)  Materials  used. 

4.  Coloring. 

5.  Blending. 

(a)  Silk. 

(b)  Linen. 

(c)  Cotton. 

6.  Picking  or  teasing  (2) 

(a)  Separate  fibers. 

(b)  Blend  colors. 

7.  Carding. 

(a)  Names  of  cards. 

(b)  Description. 

8.  Spinning. 

(a)  By  wheel  (1) 

(b)  By  mule  (1)  (2)  (3) 

(c)  Description  of  mule. 

(d)  Products. 

9.  Weaving  (1)  (2) 

(a)  Designing. 

(b)  Weaving  proper. 

10.  Milling  or  fulling. 

11.  Burling. 

12.  Mending. 

13.  Scouring. 

14.  Finishing. 

(a)  Raising  gig. 

(b)  Teasels. 

15.  Cropping. 

16.  Cressing. 

17.  Pressing. 

18.  Disposal. 

I.  Worsted  manufacture. 

1.  Like  woolens  up  to  carding  (1) 

2.  Classification. 

3.  Wool  combing. 

4.  Variations. 


31 


J.  Carpets  (1)  (2) 

1.  Ingrain. 

2.  Brussels. 

3.  Tapestry. 

K.  Felt  (1)  (2)  (6) 

L.  Waste  products. 

1.  Shoddy. 

2.  Mungo. 

M.  A  trip  through  a  woolen  mill. 

Bibliography 

1.  A  suit  of  Clothes. — R.  R.  Bowker,  Harper’s  Monthly, 
Vol.  80,  p.  685. 

2.  New  International  Encyclopedia. 

3.  Nelson’s  Encyclopedia. 

4.  Elements  of  Zoology. — Holden. 

5.  The  French  Woolen  Industry — Nation,  Vol.  64,  p.  410. 

6.  Jaquard  Loom — Century  Book  of  Facts. 

7.  American  Wool  Industry — No.  Am.  Rev., Vol.  147, p.  219. 

This  comparatively  short  bibliography  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  all  of  the  material  used  in  illustration  as  well  as  the  ideas 
contained  in  the  descriptive  matter  were  obtained  by  the  wri¬ 
ter  at  a  practical  mill  in  which  the  operators  were  courteous 
enough  to  give  detailed  explanations  of  the  work  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  machines  and  further  to  explain  the  grading  and  pre¬ 
paring  of  wool  for  manufacture. 

SHEEP — Outline  for  First  and  Second  Grades 

I.  Appearance. 

1.  Four-footed. 

2.  Horns  on  Head. 

3.  Covered  with  Wool. 

II.  Size. 

1.  Compare  with  Cat,  Dog,  Horse,  Cow. 

2.  Nearest  the  Dog  in  Size. 

3.  Nearest  the  Cow  in  Habits  and  Structure. 

32 


III.  Home. 

1.  Not  a  wild  animal. 

2.  A  tame  animal  cared  for  by  people. 

(a)  In  pastures  in  summer. 

(b)  In  barns  in  winter. 

(c)  Live  in  flocks. 

IV.  Habits. 

(a)  Live  on  grain  and  grass. 

(b)  Timid. 

(c)  Sociable. 

(d)  Make  nice  pets. 

V.  Use. 

1.  Food — Called  lamb  or  mutton. 

2.  Skins — Sheepskin. 

3.  Wool — Clothing,  carpets,  etc. 

Materials — Have  the  children  see  a  sheep,  and  show  them 
pictures  of  sheep. 

SHEEP — Outline  for  Third  Grade 

Review  work  taken  up  in  1st  or  2d  grade. 

I.  Wool  on  sheep’s  body. 

1.  Sheep’s  covering. 

2.  Dirty  and  greasy. 

II.  Sheep  washing. 

1.  Washed  in  running  stream. 

2.  Takes  a  week  or  more  to  dry. 

III.  Sheep  shearing. 

A.  Hand  shearing. 

1.  Shears  used. 

2.  Sheep  thrown  and  wool  cut  off. 

B.  Effect  of  shearing. 

1.  Does  not  hurt  sheep. 

2.  Done  in  summer,  sheep  do  not  catch  cold. 

3.  New  wool  grows. 

4.  Old  wool  would  drop  off  if  not  cut. 

IV.  Wool. 

1.  Put  into  big  bales. 

2.  Sold  to  factories. 


33 


Materials — Take  to  pasture  and  show  sheep  to  children  if 
possible.  Have  pictures  of  sheep  washing  and  sheep  shearing. 
Show  sheep  shears. 

SHEEP — Outlined  for  Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades 

Review  work  of  previous  years: 

I.  Sorting. 

1.  All  wool  not  alike. 

2.  Like  wool  put  together. 

II.  Cleaning. 

1.  Why  necessary. 

(a)  Wool  dirty. 

(b)  Wool  greasy. 

2.  How  done. 

(a)  Big  washing  machines. 

(b)  Hot  soap  suds  and  washing  powder. 

(c)  Rinsing  in  clean  water. 

(d)  Dried. 

(e)  Scouring. 

III.  Carding. 

1.  Nature. 

(a)  Pulls  wool  into  fluffy  mass. 

(b)  Comes  out  in  a  roll. 

2.  Machines. 

(a)  Cylinder  with  sharp  steel  pegs. 

(b)  Number  Three. 

(c)  Roll  smaller  every  time  it  comes  out. 

IV.  Spinning. 

1.  What  it  means. 

(a)  Pulling  thread  to  make  fine. 

(b)  Twisting  thread  to  make  strong. 

2.  How  done. 

(a)  Machine  called  “jack”  or  “mule.” 

(b)  Little  cars  stretch  thread. 

(c)  Bobbins  turn  and  twist  thread. 

V.  Weaving. 

1.  Loom  (show  looms). 

2.  Plain  weave  (paper  weaving). 

3.  Lengthwise  thread  called  warp. 

34 


4.  Crosswise  thread  called  woof. 

VI.  Coloring. 

1.  Cloth  boiled  in  coloring  matter. 

2.  Cloth  rinsed  in  clear  water. 

VII.  Clothing. 

1.  Made  at  home. 

2.  Made  in  factories. 

VIII.  Carpets  and  Tapestry. 

Bibliography 

Nature  Study  Lessons — McMurry. 
Intermediate  Plan  Book — Winter. 
Chatty  Readings  in  El.  Sci. 

Natural  History  Object  Lessons. 
Primary  Education  (Dec.  1904). 
The  Second  School  Year. 

Outlines  of  Nature  Study — Engell. 
In  the  Child’s  World — Poulsson. 

Materials 


Dirty  Wool 

Scoured  Wool 

Colored  Wool 

Roll 

Warp 

Woof 

Shoddy 

All  Wool  Cloth 
Hand  Loom 

The  following  outlines  are  suggestive  rather  than  exhaustive. 
The  possibilities  of  certain  classes  of  topics  are  hinted  at  in 
order  that  the  teacher  may  have  some  general  working  princi¬ 
ples.  Each  heading  suggests  a  problem  which  may  be  applied 
to  the  appropriate  object  and  propounded  to  the  child.  The 
probabilities  are  that  no  one  topic  would  be  considered  in 
connection  with  all  these  suggestions. 

35 


Outline  Study  of  Insects,  First  Grade 

I.  Where  seen  or  found 

I I .  General  appearance 

III.  Fy  or  walk 

IV.  Food 

V.  Enemies 

Outline  Study  of  Insects,  Third  Grade 

I.  Where  seen  or  found 

(a)  In  water 

1.  On  top 

2.  Under 

(b)  On  land 

1.  In  air 

2.  On  ground 

3.  On  some  plant 

II.  General  appearance 

(a)  Head 

(b)  Legs 

(c)  Wings 

(d)  Body 

III.  Locomotion 

(a)  Fly 

(b)  Jump 

(c)  Walk  or  run 

(d)  Swim 

IV.  Food 

(a)  Larva 

(b)  Adult 

V.  Life  history 

(a)  Egg,  larva,  pupa,  adult 

VI.  Means  of  protection 

(a)  Color 

(b)  Organs  of  defense 

(c)  Flight  or  odor 

VII.  Home 


36 


Outline  Study  of  Insects,  Fifth  Grade 

I.  Habitat 

(a)  Water 

(b)  Land 

II.  Appearance 

(a)  Head 

1.  Mouth 

2.  Antennae 

(b)  Thorax 

1.  Wings 

2.  Legs 

(c)  Abdomen 

III.  Locomotion 

(a)  Walk  or  run 

(b)  Jump 

(c)  Fly 

(d)  Swim 

IV.  Food 

(a)  Of  larva 

(b)  Of  pupa 

(c)  Of  adult 

V.  Study  of  Life  history — use  of  terrarium 

VI.  Means  of  protection 

(a)  Color 

(b)  Organs  of  defense 

(c)  Flight  or  odor 

VII.  Home 

(a)  Where 

(b)  How  built 

(c)  Length  of  life 

VIII.  Economic  importance 

(a)  To  animals 

(b)  To  man 

Outline  Study  of  Birds — First  Grade 

I.  Where  seen 

II.  When  seen 

III.  General  color 


37 


IV.  Actions 

V.  Nest 

VI  Bird  stories 

Outline  Study  of  Birds — Third  Grade 

I.  Characteristics 

Size,  shape,  color,  and  markings 

II.  Food 

Kinds,  how  obtained,  study  of  bill 
Usefulness  of  bird 

III.  Locomotion 

Study  of  leg,  foot,  and  wings 

IV.  Nesting  habit  and  nests 

(a)  Conditions  imposed  upon  the  bird  in  selecting  the 
site. 

(b)  Opportunity  offered  for  nest 

(c)  Building  the  nest 

(d )  Condition  of  young  at  birth 

(e)  Feeding  habits 

(f)  Solitary  or  social 

(g)  Migration  (or  permanent  residents) 

V.  Literature 

Story  of  the  red-headed  woodpecker 
Birds  in  song  and  story 
Bird  homes 

Outline  Study  of  Birds — Fifth  Grade 

I.  Where  seen 

A.  In  woods 

1.  On  ground 

2.  In  bushes 

3.  In  a  tree 

B.  In  field  • 

1.  On  ground 

2.  In  thicket 

3.  On  wire 

4.  In  tree 


38 


II.  When  seen 

(a)  In  morning 

(b)  In  evening 

(c)  During  day 

III.  Alone  or  in  flocks 

IV.  How  does  he  escape? 

A.  Fly 

1.  In  straight  line 

2.  In  a  wavy  line 

3.  In  short  flights 

B.  Walk  or  run 

V.  Color 

(a)  Head 

(b)  Breast 

(c)  Wings 

(d)  Tail 

(e)  Rump 

VI.  Bill 

(a)  Shape 

(b)  Length 

(c)  Color 

VII.  Legs  and  feet 

(a)  Length  of  legs 

(b)  Color  of  legs 

(c)  Feet 

VIII.  Food 

(a)  What? 

(b)  How  obtained? 

IX.  Nest 

A.  Nest  away 

B.  Nest  here 

1.  Where  nest  found 

2.  Made  of  what? 

3.  How  made? 

X.  Young 

(a)  How  many? 

(b)  Condition  at  birth 


XI.  Migration 

(a)  When 

(b)  Where 

XII.  Bird  Literature. 

Outline  Study  of  Mammals — First  Grade 

I.  Where  found  or  seen 

II.  General  appearance 

(a)  Color 

(b)  Resemble  what  other  animal 

(c)  Unusual  parts 

III.  Movements 

IV.  Food 

V.  Home 

Outline  Study  of  Mammals — Third  Grade 

I.  Where  found  or  seen 

(a)  Wild 

(b)  Domesticated 

1.  Pets 

2.  Useful  animals 

II.  Appearance 

(a)  General 

(b)  Special 

III.  Movements 

(a)  Locomotion 

(b)  Play 

IV.  Food 

(a)  Animal 

(b)  Vegetable 

(c)  Teeth 

V.  Home 

(a)  Where 

(b)  How  arranged 

VI.  Protection 

VII.  Young 


'  40 


Outline  Study  of  Mammals — Fifth  Grade 

3.  Where  found  or  seen 

(a)  In  home 

1.  House 

2.  Out  of  doors 

(b)  In  field 

1.  In  ground 

2.  On  ground 

3.  In  trees 

II.  Appearance 

(a)  General 

1.  Color 

2.  Shape  of  body 

3.  Legs 

(b)  Particular 

1.  Situation  of  eyes 

2.  Situation  and  shape  of  ears 

3.  Feet  or  claws 

4.  Tail 

III.  Movements 

(a)  Locomotion 

1.  Run,  leap,  walk,  etc. 

(b)  Play 

IV.  Food 

(a)  Animal  or  vegetable 

(b)  How  secured 

(c)  How  eaten 

V.  Home 

(a)  Where 

(b)  How  arranged 

(c)  How  cared  for 

VI.  Young 

(a)  How  many 

(b)  Appearance 

(c)  How  cared  for 


41 


VII.  Means  of  protection 

(a)  From  enemies 

1.  Color 

2.  Speed 

3.  Organs  of  defense 

(b)  From  weather 

VIII.  Economic  value 

(a)  To  man 

(b)  To  nature. 

Plant  Study 

I.  Where  found. 

1.  Field 

2.  Roadside 

3.  Woods 

4.  Swamp 

5.  Water 

II.  General  appearance 

1.  Size 

(a)  Tree 

(b)  Large  plant 

(c)  Small  plant 

2.  Character 

(a)  Upright 

(b)  Vine 

III.  Particular  appearance 

1.  Leaves 

(a)  Size 

(b)  Shape 

2.  Flower 

(a)  Size 

(b)  Shape 

(c)  Color 

3.  Stem 

(a)  Rough 

(b)  Smooth 

4.  Fruit 

(a)  Juicy 


42 


(b)  Dry 

1.  Suggest  an  outline  for  the  study  of  trees. 

2.  Suggest  an  outline  for  the  study  of  a  flower  a  little  more  in 

detail. 

3.  With  a  knowledge  of  the  common  trees  assumed,  outline 

a  series  of  lessons  on  elementary  forestry. 

4.  What  would  be  the  practical  application  of  this  series  of 

lessons? 


43 


c 


Meteorology 


I.  Relation  to  man 

1.  Rainfall 

2.  Weather  conditions 

II.  Temperature 

1.  Records  of  temperature  impressions 

(a)  Based  on  feelings 

(b)  Based  on  readings  of  thermometer 

2.  Changes  of  temperature 

(a)  Comparison  of  today  with  other  days 

(b)  Time  of  changes 

(c)  Speediness  of  change 

(d)  Kind  of  change 

(e)  Results  of  change. 

III.  Storms 

1.  Kinds  of  storms 

(a)  Rain 

(b)  Snow 

(c)  Hail 

2.  Conditions  favorablelor  storms 

(a)  Temperature 

(b)  Wind 

(c)  Air 

IV.  Clouds  ’ 

1.  Kinds 

2.  Motion 

3.  Effects 

1.  Formulate  charts  which  may  be  used  for  daily  observations 

of  some  of  the  above  conditions. 

2.  Suggest  several  reasons  for  the  study  of  the  above  condi¬ 

tions. 

3.  Devise  experiments  which  will  explain  some  of  the  weather 

phenomena. 


46 


Suggested  Outline  of  Work  Preparatory  to 
Gardening 

I.  Origin  of  Soil 

(a)  Early  condition  of  the  earth 

(b)  Plants  and  animals 

(c)  Results  of  decay 

II.  Soil  agents 

(a)  Air 

(b)  Water. 

1.  Dissolving 

2.  Carrying 

(c)  Frost 

(d)  Wind 

(e)  Weight 

III.  Composition  of  soil 

(a)  Particles  of  rock 

(b)  Decayed  plant  life 

(c)  Remains  of  animals 

IV.  Kinds  of  soil 

(a)  Sand 

(b)  Gravel 

(c)  Muck 

(d)  Loam 

V.  Composition  and  value  of  each  kind  of  soil 

VI.  Plowing,  dragging,  and  harrowing 

VII.  Drainage 

(a)  Kinds  of  water 

(b)  Purpose  of  drainage 
IX.  Transplanting 

(a)  Purpose 

(b)  Time  most  suitable 

(c)  Method  of  transplanting 
XI.  Influence  of  forests,  grass,  etc. 

1.  On  what  previous  work  might  this  be  based? 

2.  What  practical  applications  could  be  made? 

3.  In  what  grade  could  this  work  be  done?  Why? 
Suggestions  for  the  upper  grade  lessons  are  now  in  prepa 

ration. 


.  47 


